Value Pluralism and Absolute Moral Judgments Essay

Widespread and deep moral disagreements are persistently resistant to rational solutions and thus allow for continuing debate over the validity of moral judgments. This paper will discuss prominent positions regarding whether moral judgments may be true and false in an absolute sense or a relative sense, in light of the diverse and intense disagreement in moral judgment. This paper will defend the pluralistic conclusion that if there are not specific universal values, there is at least a minimum value of humanity without which a society could not survive. Moral judgments may be true and false in the absolute sense of this minimum. There are two main categories to classify different positions regarding moral judgments. Normative Moral†¦show more content†¦In her â€Å"Non-Relative Virtues: an Aristotelian Approach†, Martha Nussbaum examines different daily and universal human experiences in which most people must participate. Through this examination Nussbaum defends a version of Moral Objectivism, this one heavily supported by Aristotle, that there is indeed a single objective account of the human good based on our common humanity. However, it is Isaiah Berlin’s version of pluralism in his â€Å"Pursuit of the Ideal† that fully encompasses the nature of moral judgments, calling for a base level of absolute moral judgment and then allowing for relativism in other areas of moral judgment. Throughout this essay, we will assume that there is a world of objective values, that is to say, there is a world of those ends to which individuals strive simply for the sake of those ends, to which all other things are merely means. We also assume that some problems may be solved, but that every solution generates a new situation with new needs, problems, and complications. 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The Civil War Was A Long Term Issue - 1622 Words

The Civil War was a momentous time in American history. America was a country divided with two regions waging war on each other. The north and the south were split apart into the Union and the Confederacy. South Carolina was the first to secede from the Union and was followed by ten more states. The complexity as to why eleven states seceded from the Union has been a question that historians have explored for years. Explanations such as political and economic issues have been uncovered. Slavery has also been an explanation as to why the Civil War was caused. Historians have looked into the years before the Civil War to discover that slavery was a long term issue that caused many disputes and compromises. From how to give power to slave†¦show more content†¦The first time an issue appeared was at the Philadelphia Convention of 1787. There, delegates argued over how to count African Americans in a state’s population for apportionment in the House of Representatives. Th e north, who had already abolished slavery in some states, proposed to only count free persons. This idea would hurt the south because the majority of their population were enslaved African Americans. The resolution provided was called the three-fifths compromise; every five slaves would count as three people. This solution worked for about two decades until the United States doubled its size with the Louisiana Purchase of 1803 (Earle 9). Since the United States had more territory to settle after the Louisiana Purchase, the north and south were both attempting to add free states and slave states to the country. There was an equal amount of slave states and free states in the Union until Missouri applied to be a slave state. The addition of Missouri would make for twelve slave holding states and eleven free states. The disproportion of slave states to free states caused an uproar in the nation over the expansion of slavery into the new territory. The compromise to this issue was comp osed by Speaker of the House, Henry Clay. Clay proposed, â€Å"†¦and the said state, when formed, shall be admitted into the Union, upon an equal footing with the original states, in all respects whatsoever.† (Transcript of Missouri 1). The state of Missouri

How Laughter Benefits Our Health Free Essays

It is a known fact that laughter is advantageous and useful to our health. Many specialists agree that laughter brings to numerous positive effects of psychological nature, and also it improves our physical condition. For example, according to a recent study of medical researchers from the University of Maryland, laughter helps to keep our facial muscles in tonus, lowers the risks of heart attack, improves our immune system, etc. We will write a custom essay sample on How Laughter Benefits Our Health or any similar topic only for you Order Now Besides, it was discovered that laughter can play the role of an analgesic, relieve pains, increase pain tolerance threshold, and this effect is a psychological one, because no prove of a related chemical reaction was found (Reader’s Digest, 2005). At the same time, there are other psychological outcomes of laughter. Elisabeth Scott, a stress management and family therapy specialist, points on various positive effects of laughter as one of the most effective tools to control and manage our stresses. Those include opportunities to distract and to divert one’s attention from anger, depression, tension, or other distressing emotions to funny and joyful things, and this way to avoid possible harmful aftereffects of stresses. In addition, â€Å"..laughter provides a physical and emotional release,† it helps to relax, feel more comfortable and hopeful (Scott, 2007). Finally, laughter can be a good exercise to improve own self-perception and abilities to interact, because it helps us establish good contact and socialize more effectively. Undoubtedly, laughter is very healthy for human psychology and mind, because it helps to develop positive and enthusiastic disposition, forms optimistic perspectives, as well as stimulates good and cheerful mood. Specialists found out that young children laugh about 400 times a day, however, adult people laugh only about 17 times a day (Scott, 2007). That is why it is vital to incorporate into our daily routine more and more of good but controlled laughter, which will help to take this life less seriously and focus on positive or encouraging ideas. References Laugh Your Way to Good Health. (2005, September). Reader’s Digest. The Reader’s Digest Association Inc. Retrieved January 19, 2008 Scott, E. (2007, November 7). The Stress Management and Health Benefits of Laughter. About. About Inc., The New York Times Company. Retrieved January 19, 2008, from ;http://stress.about.com/od/stresshealth/a/laughter.htm;. How to cite How Laughter Benefits Our Health, Essay examples

Youth Gang Problem in the United Kingdom

Question: Critically assess the argument that there is a youth gang problem in the UK? Answer: Gang problem was always a concerning issue in the different areas of the United Kingdom. But, according to the recent statistics data, one astonishing fact came out that, gang violence and criminal activity rates among the youth population of the United Kingdom is gradually increasing. The youth population of any country is considered to the future human resource and asset of the country. Destructive factors like gang violence, harm and damages that the youth population, resulting in the stalled economic growth and social structure. According to a statistical data, more than 35% of all the people in gangs are juvenile (Batchelor, 2009). This is one of the most concerning fact for both the government and general citizens. According to a study, researchers have pointed out five main reasons for what youth tends to join gangs. The first reason is that a young individual thinks that he belongs to such community. This is more like a psychological aspect. The second most predominant reason is that they join gangs for the protection from violence caused by other gangs. Thirdly, one of the major reasons is the poverty. To earn huge amount money in a very short span of time, Youth of the United Kingdom join gangs and commit different criminal activities. Fourth reason scholars pointed out is the lack of engagement in schools and other education systems (Brown, 2005). It is a known fact that knowledge provides wisdom. Youth who do not afford education, is influenced to join criminal groups and gangs. Lastly, lack of parental supervision is one of the reasons pointed out. Twelve to eighteen is the age, where youths tend to divert on the wrong path. If there is any absence of proper parental guidance, the youth will join criminal groups, commit criminal activities. The primary goal of this essay is to highlight the issues regarding the youth gang problem with proper evidence, the causes of such phenomenon and provide an adequate notion of gangs. This essay will also assess the evidence and historical prospects of gangs in the United Kingdom. Finally, this essay will provide, whether there is a youth gang problem or not (Cohen, 2002). Generally, a gang is noted as a play group that exists parallel with the family and neighbourhood. On criminal activity, a gang is considered to be a group of individuals, working together and participating in different criminal activities. A fascinating fact regarding gangs is that different individuals work co-ordinating and co-operative in different criminal activities. These groups comprising of recurrently associated individuals with a properly identified leadership and organizational structure try to control the criminal activity in a particular territory. According to an article by Hallsworth and Young, there are mainly three kinds of youth gangs, first are Peer groups that are involved in petty and unorganized crimes. The second one is Gangs, which uses different deadly violence acts and the third one is Organized Criminal Groups, which operate in black market dealings. In these organizations, youth population works as a part of the entire adult organized group. The researche rs of USA use terms such as group identity, controlling territory, wearing distinguishing colors, hierarchies of power and leadership to categorize gang activities. The scholar belonging to the United Kingdom primarily focuses on factors like youth subculture, delinquent youth groups, and groups of young people who spend time together (South and Brisman, 2013). There is also a strong belief among general people is that all gangs are associated with criminal activities. There is also a huge argument in both aspects of this phenomenon. Some researchers like Pitts, suggest that gangs are purely and solely associated with crimes and criminal activities. He also noted that gangs generally operate within dealing and controlling drug markets, realty and housing estates, and they also use the tool of violence to coerce people into membership of their gang (Smith and Bradshaw, 2005). Current political parties also support and affiliate the fact that there is a gang problem in the UK. The United Kingdom coalition Government is also blamed for the UK riots that took place in the year of 2011. The 2011 United Kingdom gang riots are considered to be the stoutest example of the fact that there is a rising gang problem in the UK. One of the major aspects of these riots is that it escalated anxieties among the authorities about the gang culture in the United Kingdom. The aftermath of the riot was so severe that current Prime Minister David Cameron announced a concerted all-out war on gangs and gang culture. He also put the demolition of the gang culture as the national priority. The United Kingdom acted spontaneously and appointed the gang expert Bill Bratton as the Advisor on gang warfare. The government arranged a fund of 10 million pounds for the diminution of the gang problem in the United Kingdom. (Davies, 2008) There are some reports suggesting the fact that the blame of the 2011 riots falsely associated with the name of gangs by the Government. According to the Government report, only one of the four arrests made had a connection with gangs. The statistical data shows that ten percent of the all arrests were reported to be gang affiliated. This emphasizes the fact that, involve of gang members were in a minimal level. It was also proved that the gang members involved did not play a pivotal role (Goldson, 2011). To understand the overall concept of the youth gang crimes. It is important to evaluate the historical prospect of gang culture. Psychological studies suggest that troublesome youths have a higher affinity towards criminal gangs. Geoffrey Pearsonss Hooligan concept offers the reminder regarding the existence of delinquent youth groups. Famous examples of 19th-century gangs are like Scuttlers, Hooligan, Peaky Blinders (Councils and via, 2010). There also a phenomenon of girl gangs in the United Kingdom. This phenomenon was highlighted from the time of the 1990s. In a newspaper In British media, Girl gangs were termed as the most violent in the world. Statistical data show that nearly 30% of the English and Scottish girls aged between eleven to fifteen had been in a fight in the previous year. It is found in different studies that gangs of the United Kingdom are not structurally similar with the gangs in the United States of America. Statistical data suggest that people self-defining themselves as a gang member is nearly about 3% to 5% of the total youth population. The involvement of youths in gangs is about fourteen to fifteen, and the percentage is about twelve percent. These youths drop away at the age of eighteen to nineteen and about two percent of the total population. In the United States of America, police department estimates that there are a total number of $881 gangs and approximately 249,324 gang members in the country. According to reports of the London police department, there is a total number of 160 gangs are currently present and operating in the London region. The data also suggest that nearly 600 to 700 young people are estimated involved directly in the region of London Borough of Waltham Forest region. It is calculated that around 8,100 people are affected by the criminal activities of the gang in London (Laidler and Hunt, 2001). Some it is mistaken that any sort of criminal activity is considered as a gang act. There are many cases like the murder of eleven-year-old Damilola Taylor and (2000), and murder of Toni Anne Byfield (2007) was mistakenly considered to be a gang act. Another term that is used is postcode wars that are used for describing gang activities. It mainly refers to the territorial control in the areas of Liverpool, London, Manchester and Birmingham. It is also used as the evidence of gang problems. However, before the evidence of gang culture, working class people were victimized of gang activity. According to recent studies, there evidences of burgeoning gang culture present in Britain. Media and newspapers often exaggerate the gang concept. The fundamental problem is the street-based urban violence acts. Violent street crimes are the most vital problem and sometimes it is associated with gang activities (MacDonal and Marsh, 2005). Recent time has witnessed growing concern around the presence of youth gangs and engagement of the members in a conflict involving weapons like knifes. However, there lie some discrepancies regarding the reliable and useful evidence that relate to nature, prevalence and form of youth gangs and knife carrying in the United Kingdom. In spite of this, the concept of the gang and the harm caused by them has been in the speculation of the media, research and the government policy. This has led people to blame the youth for being the reason for the downfall of the society by taking part in a gang. However, this cannot be considered as new phenomena (Vasquez, Osman and Wood, 2012). Since the 1960s, research on British society has put the focus on groups like punks, rude boys, skinheads and chavs. According to the NARCO, youth offence fell between the year 1993 and 2001. Britain has been one of the lowest youth crime rates in Europe. However, the media does not take into consideration this a spect, and makes young people folk devil'. Moral panic is created due to his. Around 1.5 million people in Britain consider moving home due to young people hanging around in their neighbourhood. It is significant to discuss the issue regarding the problems caused (gov.scot, 2016). The importance of youth gangs in the United Kingdom relates the issue they cause about community cohesion and society cohesion. Although NACRO said that the youth offending has fallen, young people getting involved in gangs are disproportionately involved in severe crime (londonfunders.org.uk, 2016). An important issue that comes up in this regard is reluctant gangsters'. They do not have the wish to be an active part of a particular gang, but they are not able to gain any other form of employment. Therefore, they are left with no other option but to get back to the gang lifestyle. Those who make a deliberate attempt to leave the gang they are a part of usually are at the risk of victimisation. This issue is also an impact for the family as they have a tendency to fall a victim of retaliation attack. Mental and physical harassment are immense. Police raids and stigma are the concerns they are bound to face. Since many youths join gangs at a young age, the impact of the actions is usu ally not apparent before some steps can be taken (Goldson, 2011). Ethnic minorities are usually over-presented in the media and British police lists of youth gangs. Since such youth gangs are more commonly found in sectors populated by ethnic minorities, people have a tendency to avoid consciously such areas and move away from such areas that allow the area to get worse. Ethnicity may not be such a robust predictor of taking part in a gang in the United Kingdom. Researches done on British youth gangs give support for this view. Gangs found in Manchester are ethnically mixed when ethnicity mixture is found in the neighbourhood. On the contrary, in Edinburgh, where there is more ethnical homogeneity, gangs are mostly of white origin. The ethnic composition of such youth gangs is therefore not separate from the ethnic composition of other youth groups in Britain (Smithson, Ralphs and Williams, 2013). Police actions taken up against the gangs are described as intelligence-led. However, the quality, nature and ethical deployment of information are still in controversy. Studies have stated that youth is being targeted solely by the association they have with known gang members along with proof of exclusionary experiences. Some examples are uncertain employment prospects, school exclusion, and excessive attention from police that attribute to erroneous labelling (Coid et al. 2013). More than 80 youngsters died as a result of violence caused by gangs in Britain in 2008. In London, around 25 people were stabbed to death. More than 170 gangs, having their members as young as ten-year-olds, have been brought under notice by the police team of London alone. Many are thought to be the loose affiliations of friends from the similar area intent of having control over a turf or a territory. Postcodes define such territories. The penalty that is levied when there are cases of straying in the wrong area is being beaten, robbed or stabbed. Many of these teenagers are now found to be carrying with them knife due to fear. Such weapons are used for defending themselves when attacks happen. Experts put down the opinion that the blame is to be placed on the breakdown of the family and social life and raise of e certain gang culture. The gang has been found to be replacing the family unit, and the youngsters are provided a sense of belonging and structure that in built within th em pride. Such pride often lead to murder. Concern around gang culture is rapidly increasing, but certain myths are constantly revolving around such issues. Gangs have the potential to lead youngsters into situations that are dangerous. Their lives are filled with fear and distrust. They find the security, friendship and support in the gang. But for the society, it becomes a threat. Youth crime is a social problem. We cannot deny the fact that youth gang and youth crime are an integral part of consumer culture. Young people living in groups and gangs are marked as antisocial, and they are much more prone to do the crime (by.uk, 2016). Much has been done by the government in this regard and some significant steps have been put forward. In the year 2007, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom held summits that were dedicated to guns and knife crime. The government had announced a three point plan for tackling gang and gun crime. The focus was on courts, policing and community prevention. Across the broad spectrum of politics, amendments were called for to have protection schemes for safe houses' and escaping gangs (Croall, 2011). The recent research works have shown that the gang members are involved in various anti-social activities. The gang members tend to perform various criminal activities like drug dealing, killing, robbery, snubbing. Some of the gangs even commit other types of horrendous crimes like sex offending, rape and even homicide. The research work that was conducted by Bullock and Tilley's has found that the Southern part of the Manchester have arrested an average of 12 people who belong from a specific gang and groups (Belknap 2014). Apart from this, the OCJS statistics has provided insight into the actual conditions in the streets of the United Kingdom where the gangs and criminal groups dominate the streets and lanes. OCJS statistics also showed that six percent of the people have self-reported that they have been involved in any criminal gangs or groups in the United Kingdom. This report is phenomenal as it has provided a huge figure that has provided insight about the fifth of the core of fences and over 45 per cent of burglaries and criminal activities have been conducted by the majority of the gang members (Van Houdt et al. 2011). Apart from this, it has been found that the gang membership has provided a direct impact on the individual's offending. Moreover, the OCJS report also highlighted that 65 percent of the gang members has somewhat agreed of committing the horrendous crime and also involved in gangs. However, various research statistics has shown that in the past there was the prevalence of sub cultures which has contributed immensely to the modern gang system of the United Kingdom (Buonanno et al. 2011). However, the old concept of the subcultures differs considerably with the modern gang ideologies in the United Kingdom. The sub cultural groups are highly motivated, and they promote the ideologies of the social movement within the territory of the British Crown. Some researchers also consider this sub culture groups as the street corner groups of the United Kingdom who draws similar ideologies from the gangs of the American inner city. However this sub cultural gangs in the streets of Old United Kingd om has no leaders, and the boys seem to enjoy each other's company, and even they commit less number of social crimes (Lynch and Pridemore 2011). However, various researchers and analysts have proposed that the street gangs are primarily the youth and young population of the country of United Kingdom. These people have selected a life of vagabond, restless and criminality because of various related factors. It has been found in the recent statistics that the area within the United Kingdom which has the less number of job opportunities has resulted in such reckless and horrific groups (Duke 2013). Moreover, in the United Kingdom, most of the people are busy in earning money, and most of the parents in the family have very less time in properly nurturing and supervising their children. This less time with the parents and family have forced and motivated the children who are mostly home alone to come out of their den (Walsh 2011). This bold gesture from the side of the children often assists them in mixing up with the spoilt brat' and criminal and offensive minded youths in the society. This is the first and the foremost step whe re the children move in the world of criminality. Now, if we just concentrate and highlight the hierarchy of the United Kingdom's society, we would found that the society is distributed into three social classes. These three classes are the Higher or sophisticated class, middle class and finally the lower class. This lower class or under class people are the people who are living a life of extreme poverty and are spending their livelihood in the streets of the United Kingdom . The youth that belong from this underclass and under privileged people of the United Kingdom has the higher tendency to perform a deviant sub cultural solutions'. Moreover, this deviant ideology of the underclass youths of the streets of the United Kingdom has shown to create their values and attitudes. This attitudes and behaviour often lead the particular youth to commit social crimes and other anti-social activities (Christopher 2015). Apart from this, it was also surveyed that most of the under privileged people who are living the life of extreme poverty reside from the refugee groups. In the United Kingdom alone there are more than 1,00,000 refugees. This refugee (especially Blacks) has a natural tendency of robbery and criminal activities. It has been observed that the Blacks in the United Kingdom has the higher percentage and chances to construct a gang based on the anti-social ideologies and anti-government activities leading to the formation of a social criminal gang and increase in crime rates within the nation of the United Kingdom (Farrell et al. 2011). Other researchers and social workers have suggested and verified various families with a dysfunctional are seem to get marginalized from the main stream society and the people. However, it has been found and researched that the people who search for money and status and inevitably inclined to the crime and anti-social activities within a country. Moreover, there is a major base of people who are unemployed and are struggling in their daily life to earn a single day food are seem o have the higher criminal mindsets. The youth who belong from these strata of people are found to possess greater tendency and aspirations to break their economic shackle and want to be a modern-day' Robin Hood. For this inspirational mindset, they tend to change the social hierarchy and want to commence their ideologies in the society. Being youth, they have a rebellious set of mind, and they try to change the social and society's policy. This all inflict a sense of social crime and gangs in the streets of the United Kingdom. However, it is wrong to state that all unemployed people in the streets of the United Kingdom are not influenced by these criminal activities, however, it is also observed that various low incoming people have a trait of law-abiding persons and are very much in love of their nation of United Kingdom . On the other hand, it is also argued that it is very much difficult to explain the past and foremost explanations that are leading the modern phenomenon of youth gang culture' in the United Kingdom. However, most of the researchers believe that the culture is a dynamic thing, and it is not in a static position (Heidensohn and Gelsthorpe 2012). This dynamic nature of the society has helped the youth of the society to grab various ideologies that are commonly shown in the movies, media and depict the same in their daily life that has ultimately led to the formation of the youth gang culture in the United Kingdom. This is the conclusive reasons that contribute to the higher rise of criminal activities in the streets of the United Kingdom committed by the youths (Munice and Wilson 2013). It is true that prevalence of youth gang is a problem in the modern society in the United Kingdom. But some controversy is present regarding this issue. Some aspects of youth gang are a matter of controv ersy, especially the topic of the minority community. The government must look into the matter that over speculation does not happen regarding the topic, and there is no unnecessary harm caused to the general people. References Batchelor, S., 2009. Girls, gangs and violence: Assessing the evidence.Probation Journal,56(4), pp.399-414. Belknap, J., 2014.The invisible woman: Gender, crime, and justice. Cengage Learning. by.uk,(2016).[online]Available at: https://www.bl.uk/reshelp/findhelpsubject/socsci/topbib/gang/knifecrimeitalics.pdf [Accessed 11 Jan. 2016]. Brown, S., 2005.Understanding youth and crime: listening to youth?. McGraw-Hill Education (UK). Buonanno, P., Drago, F., Galbiati, R. and Zanella, G., 2011. Crime in Europe and the United States: dissecting the reversal of misfortunes.Economic Policy,26(67), pp.347-385. Christopher, D.P., 2015.British culture: an introduction. Routledge. Cohen, S. (2002) Folk devils and moral panics: the creation of the mods and rockers, Revised edition, Abingdon: Routledge Coid, J.W., Ullrich, S., Keers, R., Bebbington, P., DeStavola, B.L., Kallis, C., Yang, M., Reiss, D., Jenkins, R. and Donnelly, P., 2013. Gang membership, violence, and psychiatric morbidity.American journal of psychiatry,170(9), pp.985-993. Councils, L. and Viac, C., 2010. Confronting London's violent street world. Croall, H. (2011).Crime and Society in Britain. Pearson, pp.178-180. Davies, A., 2008.The Gangs of Manchester: The Story of the Scuttlers, Britain's First Youth Cult. Preston: Milo Books. Duke, K., 2013. From crime to recovery the reframing of British drugs policy?.Journal of drug issues,43(1), pp.39-55. Farrell, G., Tilley, N., Tseloni, A. and Mailley, J., 2011. The crime drop and the security hypothesis.Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, p.0022427810391539. Goldson, B. (2011).Youth in Crisis: gangs, territoriality and violence. Abingdon: Routledge. Goldson, B. ed., 2011.Youth in crisis?:'gangs', territoriality and violence. Routledge. gov.scot, (2016). [online] Available at: https://www.gov.scot/resource/doc/324191/0104329.pdf [Accessed 11 Jan. 2016]. Heidensohn, F. and Gelsthorpe, L., 2012.Gender and crime(pp. 336-369). Oxford University Press. Laidler, K.J. and Hunt, G., 2001. Accomplishing femininity among the girls in the gang.British journal of criminology,41(4), pp.656-678. londonfunders.org.uk,(2016).[online]Available at: https://www.londonfunders.org.uk/sites/default/files/images/LondonGangsfinal.pdf [Accessed 11 Jan. 2016]. Lynch, J.P. and Pridemore, W.A., 2011. Crime in international perspective.Crime and public policy, pp.5-52. MacDonald, R. and Marsh, J., 2005.Disconnected youth? Growing up in Britain's poor neighbourhoods. Palgrave Macmillan. Muncie, J. and Wilson, D., 2013.Student handbook of criminal justice and criminology. Routledge. Smith, D.J. and Bradshaw, P., 2005.Gang membership and teenage offending. University of Edinburgh, Centre for Law and Society. Smithson, H., Ralphs, R. and Williams, P., 2013. Used and Abused The Problematic Usage of Gang Terminology in the United Kingdom and Its Implications for Ethnic Minority Youth.British Journal of Criminology,53(1), pp.113-128. South, N. and Brisman, A., 2013. Critical green criminology, environmental rights and crimes of exploitation.New directions in crime and deviancy, pp.99-110. Van Houdt, F., Suvarierol, S. and Schinkel, W., 2011. Neoliberal communitarian citizenship: Current trends towards earned citizenshipin the United Kingdom, France and the Netherlands.International sociology,26(3), pp.408-432. Vasquez, E.A., Osman, S. and Wood, J.L., 2012. Rumination and the Displacement of Aggression in United Kingdom Gangà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Affiliated Youth.Aggressive behavior,38(1), pp.89-97. Walsh, C., 2011. Youth justice and neuroscience: A dual-use dilemma.British journal of criminology,51(1), pp.21-39.